The Mysterious Fairy Flag of Clan MacLeod and its Legendary Protective Powers

Top image: The Dunvegan Cup, Fairy Flag, and Sir Rory Mor's Horn are heirlooms of the MacLeods of Dunvegan. This photo was taken sometime before 1927. (Public Domain) 

The Fairy Flag is one of the treasures kept by the chief of Clan MacLeod, a Highland Scottish clan associated with the Isle of Skye. Today, the flag resides in Dunvegan Castle, the seat of the clan’s chief, on the Isle of Skye, and has been described as “rather tattered, made of faded brown silk and carefully darned in places”. Although the flag does not look like much, it is believed to possess mystical powers, and several stories have been told about how this magical object has protected Clan MacLeod over the centuries. 

There are two main stories that have been traditionally told about the origin of the fairy flag. The first of these links the flag to the Crusades, thus indicating that the flag came from somewhere in the East. The second one, by comparison, involves fairies, and places events surrounding the flag’s appearance on the Isle of Skye itself. 

It has been determined that the fabric of the Fairy Flag is silk from the Middle East (more specifically, Syria or Rhodes). This lends some credence to the story that the flag has its origin in the East. Nevertheless, this object has been dated to between the 4th and 7th centuries AD, at least 400 years before the First Crusade. Still, it may be possible that the Fairy Flag was already treated as a relic by the time of the First Crusade, and only found its way to the British Isles following this military campaign.

Crusades Flag

The Crusades version of the Fairy Flag story begins with Harald Sigurdsson, known also as Harald Hardrada, the King of Norway who ruled from 1046 to 1066. Prior to becoming the King of Norway, Harald had served as captain of the Varangian Guards in the court of the Byzantine Emperor at Constantinople. One of the treasures he brought back to Norway was the Fairy Flag, which was then known as Landoda, or ‘Land Ravager’. The king believed that the flag made him undefeatable in battle, and when Harald embarked on his campaign to conquer England, he took the flag along with him. 

The Norse army was ambushed by the English, and it seems that Harald did not have the opportunity to unfurl his magical flag. Harald’s army defeated at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, and the king lost his life as a result of an arrow that pierced his throat. It is said that one of Harald’s soldiers who survived the battle, Godred Crovan, managed to rescue the flag, and brought it to the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles, where he found refuge with its king, Godred Sigtryggsson, who was also his kinsman. Godfred established himself as the King of Mann in 1079, and the MacLeods are said to claim descent from him. 

Harald at the battle of Stamford Bridge. (Public Domain)

Fairy Clan

The other main story suggests that the Fairy Flag was not obtained from the East, but given to the clan by a fairy. The fourth chief of the clan, Iain Ciar, is said to have been a highly attractive young man. Although many women were attracted to him, he had fancied none of them. One night, the chief is said to have stumbled upon a fairy dwelling, where he saw a fairy princess. The two fell in love instantly, and the princess requested that she be allowed to marry the chief.

The fairy king, however, rejected her request, explaining that unlike fairies, humans will grow old and die, and that grief was inevitable for her. A compromise was reached, and the princess was allowed to be with the chief for a year and a day, after which she would need to return to her people. During this period, the princess gave birth to a son. Eventually, the time came when the princes had to return. Before leaving, she made her husband promise that he would never leave the child alone, and never allow him to cry, and that would be too much for her to bear. 

The Fairy Flag (Public Domain) and Dunvegan Castle on the Isle of Skye in the mist, August 2007. (CC BY-SA 3.0) 

In the weeks after his wife’s departure, the chief kept his promise, though he was depressed. His friends decided to throw him a party in an attempt to cheer him up. As the celebrations were going on, the chief’s spirits began to revive. The merry music and noise from the banquet hall were so loud, that the baby’s nurse decided to leave the nursery to have a peek at the revelry. The baby woke up, and began to cry, though the nurse did not hear him. 

The fairy princess heard her child’s cries, and appeared beside him. She took him up, wrapped him in a fairy shawl, and sang to him, thus putting him back to sleep. It was at this point that the chief / nurse entered the nursery. The lullaby was heard, but the person singing it could not be seen. Years later, the child grew up, and told his father what had happened. The shawl became the Fairy Flag, and is believed to be a talisman that protected the clan. 

Princess singing lullabies, Illustration by H.J. Ford, 1921 (carolynemerick.com) 

If the clan were to find themselves in great danger, all they needed to do was to unfurl the flag and wave it three times. Doing so would bring the fairy legions to their aid. This, however, could only be used three times, after which it would return to where it came from, taking the flag waver with it. The flag is said to have been used twice already, the first when they were vastly outnumbered by their enemies, the MacDonalds, when the latter invaded their lands. When the Fairy Flag was used, the tide of battle turned, and the MacLeods were saved from destruction.

 

Iona Abbey: The effigy on the floor in the center may mark the location of the burials of several MacLeod chiefs and one flag bearer.

The second time the Fairy Flag was used was when a plague was killing off the clan’s cattle, and the MacLeods were dying of starvation. When the flag was used, the cattle was said to have come back to life. The flag was almost used for the third time during the Second World War, as the clan’s chief, Dame Flora MacLeod offered to wave the flag from the Cliffs of Dover should the Germans attempt to invade Great Britain, but fortunately Clan MacLeod did not need to call upon the magic of the flag and so, according to legend, the MacLeods can call upon the legendary flag one last time. 

Dame Flora MacLeod of MacLeod of Dunvegan Castle, a castle belonging to the clan MacLeod Annotation (CC BY-SA 3.0 nl)

By Ḏḥwty

References

• Associated Clan MacLeod Societies, 2016. The Fairy Flag Legend. [Online]Available at: http://www.clanmacleod.org/about-macleods/the-fairy-flag.html
• Johnson, B., 2016. The Fairy Flag of the MacLeods. [Online]
• Available at: http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofScotland/The-Fairy-Flag-of-the-MacLeods/
• ScotClans, 2013. The Fairy Flag of Dunvegan. [Online] Available at: http://www.scotclans.com/scotland/scottish-myths/symbolic-scotland/flag-dunvegan/
• The Scotsman, 2005. The Fairy Flag of Clan MacLeod. [Online] Available at: http://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/the-fairy-flag-of-clan-macleod-1-465076
• www.dunvegancastle.com, 2016. The Fairy Flag. [Online] Available at: http://www.dunvegancastle.com/content/default.asp?page=s2_5
• www.windsorscottish.com, 2009. The Fairy Flag of Dunvegan. [Online] Available at: http://www.windsorscot

The Legend of Aegeus - The Mistake of a Son and the Death of a King

Forty-three miles south of Athens, Greece, one can find the magnificent cliffs of Cape Sounion. This is a beautiful site with breathtaking sunset views over the Aegean Sea. Today’s beautiful scenery at Sounion draws many visitors who wish to marvel in the beauty of the landscape. However, Sounion is a location that offers more than just spectacular views. This site is an important location in Greek mythology.

The cape is surrounded by the Aegean Sea, which, according to Greek mythology, was named after Aegeus after he jumped to his tragic death due to a mistaken belief that his son had died. Additionally, Sounion is an archeological site, containing the ruins of an ancient temple of Poseidon. To an uninformed traveler, the beauty of Sounion may lie solely in the amazing sights where the cape meets the sea - but the myths and legends surrounding this area add even more wonder and beauty to the landscape as one imagines the ancient events that are said to have unfolded nearby.

The cliff of Cape Sounion and the Temple of Poseidon, Greece. Credit: SerrNovik / BigStockPhoto

Cape Sounion has been a site of many archeological finds. Overall, archeological explorations have uncovered artifacts that date back to 700 B.C. An original Temple of Poseidon is believed to have stood upon the cape until it was destroyed in 480 B.C., as Persian troops invaded Greece during the second Greco-Persian War. The Temple of Poseidon overlooked the sea, sitting on Cape Sounion at 60 meters (200 feet) above sea level. This is very fitting, as Poseidon was the god of the sea in classical mythology. The Temple was rectangular with columns on all four sides. A subsequent Temple was built over the remains from 444-440 B.C., and some of the columns still remain standing today.

The remains of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion, built circa 440 BC. Credit: Sborisov / BigStockPhoto

While the archeological finds at Cape Sounion are interesting and informative, many visitors are drawn to the Cape due to the tragic mythological tale which surrounds it. The myth explains the name of the sea the Cape overlooks.

According to Greek mythology, the Aegean Sea was named after mythological Greek King Aegeus after he flung himself off the cliff, to his death, upon the mistaken belief that his son had died. This ancient tragic tale involves a theme that is still used in modern story-telling today, which is that of misunderstanding and the tragic consequences that can follow.

Aegeus consults with Themis, Oracle of Delphi. Circa 440–430 B.C. Public Domain

King Aegeus was the grandson of the mythical ruler of ancient Athens, Erichthonius. Aegeus was first married to Meta, and then to Chalciope, but the pairings produced no children, and he left them. As the years passed and he remained without a male heir, he sought advice from the oracle at Delphi. Her prophecy confused him: "Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief." Out of disappointment, he left to visit the wise King Pittheus of Troezen.

At Troezen, King Pittheus introduced his daughter Aethra to a drunken Aegeus, and the two lay with each other. Aethra became pregnant with Aegeus’ child, who grew to be known as the hero Theseus.

Theseus and Aethra by Laurent de la Hyre (Wikimedia Commons)

Before the baby was born, Aegeus left Aethra to return to Athens. Prior to leaving, he found a large, heavy rock, and placed his sandals and sword beneath it. He instructed Aethra that when he came of age, their son should retrieve the items and return to Aegeus. When he had grown, Theseus did retrieve the sword and sandals, and reunited with Aegeus in Athens. At first Aegeus didn’t recognize Theseus, but through tests he eventually realized it was his son returning to him. 

Theseus recognized by his father by Jean-Hippolyte Flandrin (Wikimedia Commons)

At the time, Aegeus had been in conflict with Crete. King Minos of Crete had a son, Androgeus, who repeatedly defeated Aegeus in contests during the Panathenaic Games. Aegeus was jealous and embarrassed, so he suggested that Androgeus go to kill the Marathonian Bull. While attempting to do so, Androgeus was killed, and King Minos was so angered that he declared war on Athens. However, he agreed to peace under one condition – sacrifice. Minos created an elaborate labyrinth, within which he imprisoned the dreadful creature known as the Minotaur. Every nine years, Athens had to send seven male and seven female youths, known as tributes, to King Minos by ship. King Minos would then place the fourteen youths into the labyrinth to be devoured by the Minotaur. This was the price Athens had to pay for peace between themselves and Crete.

Mosaic depicting Theseus killing the Minotaur inside the labyrinth (Wikimedia Commons)

This continued on until the brave Theseus came alone and offered to help bring the practice to an end. One year, Theseus volunteered to go with the fourteen tributes so that he could slay the Minotaur. Aegeus was scared for his son’s life. To help ease his father’s fears, Theseus agreed that he would announce his fate by displaying white sails on his ship upon his return home. Aegeus waited on Cape Sounion, overlooking the sea, for his son’s return. When he saw Theseus’ ship approach with black sails, signifying Theseus’ death, Aegeus was devastated. He threw himself off the cliff and into the sea where he perished.

Unfortunately, this was all a tragic mistake. Theseus had successfully killed the Minotaur, and left the labyrinth very much alive. But he inadvertently forgot to change the black sails to white. This misunderstanding ended Aegeus’ life. The body of water hence became known as the Aegean Sea.

Sunset at Cape Sounion. Wikimedia, (CC BY-SA 3.0)

The mythological stories of Aegeus and Cape Sounion are retold as a tragic tale of a father who ended his own life under the mistaken belief that his son had died. As far as Greek mythology goes, the story of Aegeus and Theseus remains a classical example of a mistaken belief leading to tragic results.

Featured image: Aethra Showing her Son Theseus the Place Where his Father had Hidden his Arms (Wikimedia Commons)

Sources

• Sounio Poseidon temple – Greeka. Available from: http://www.greeka.com/attica/athens/athens-excursions/sounio-poseidon-temple.htm
• Sounion – Ancient-Greece. Available from: http://ancient-greece.org/archaeology/sounion.html
• Aegeus – Encyclopaedia Britannica. Available from: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7001/Aegeus
• Aegeus - In2Greece. Available from: http://www.in2greece.com/english/historymyth/mythology/names/aegeus.htm

The Legendary Queen of Sheba and Her Iconic Visit with King Solomon

Originating in the Bible, the Queen of Sheba is a figure featured in the stories of many cultures and religious groups. Although her exact homeland has not been agreed upon, she is known as a queen from the Red Sea region, and plays a role in legendary tales that have been retold numerous times through literature, film, television, and music. Most tales revolve around her meeting with the biblical King of Israel, Solomon, with variations on what occurred during that visit. In some tales she is tricked into sleeping with him, ultimately leading her to bear him a son. In other versions, she is tricked into revealing her hairy legs, which repulses Solomon. In other variations, she simply delivers spices to Solomon, uses riddles to test his wisdom, and then returns home.

The Queen of Sheba is well-known as a Biblical figure. Relatively little is written within the Bible about her origins. Her story focuses on her travels to Jerusalem. She is said to have arrived in Jerusalem with a camel bearing spices to give to Solomon. She arrived "with a very great retinue, with camels bearing spices, and very much gold, and precious stones" (I Kings 10:2). "Never again came such an abundance of spices" (10:10; II Chron. 9:1–9). She presented several riddles to Solomon, which he answered to her satisfaction. In the tale, Solomon taught Sheba about his god, Yahweh, and then they exchanged gifts. After that, the Queen returned to her home land. Some Ethiopians believe that this is how Christianity was originally brought to their area.

There is agreement among scholars that Sheba refers to the South Arabian kingdom of Saba, which is located in present-day Yemen. The Queen’s visit to Jerusalem may have been a trade visit, as it was common to trade spices by camel around the 9th and 10th centuries B.C.

In Jewish legend, the Queen of Sheba was the Queen of Egypt and Ethiopia. She was credited with bringing the first balsam tree to Israel. In one Jewish account, King Solomon was informed that Sheba was the only Kingdom that was not subject to him. This did not make him happy. He sent a letter to Sheba commanding that the Queen of Sheba come to him as one of his subjects. The Queen of Sheba agreed to visit Jerusalem, and sent many ships filled with gifts prior to her arrival. She also agreed to arrive within three years, although the trip typically took seven years. When she did arrive, she mistook Solomon’s glass floor for water, and lifted her dress, revealing her hairy legs, for which King Solomon reprimanded her. She asked him three questions to test his wisdom, and returned home. 

The Queen of Sheba meeting with Solomon (note: this is unlikely to be an accurate depiction of how she really looked, from a racial perspective). Public Domain

Muslims do not refer to the Queen of Sheba, but to the “queen of the south.” The story in the Quran is essentially the same as that followed by Christians and Jews, with some supplementations derived from the Jewish Midrash. The queen is named Bilkis. The tale says the demons of Solomon’s court were worried that Solomon might marry Bilkis. To prevent this, they started a rumor that Bilkis had hairy legs, leading Solomon to construct the glass floor for the sole purpose of tricking her into revealing her legs. However, in this version the Queen and Solomon did not have relations, as they did in the other versions. 

The Queen of Sheba, also known as Bilkis. Public Domain

In the Ethiopian Kebra Nagast (Glory of the Kings), the Queen is referred to as Makeda. While this version of her story included the trip to visit Solomon, and the son who they conceived together and she raised, it omitted the stories of the glass floor and her hairy legs. In this version of the legend, the Queen warned Solomon that he was not to touch her, because she was an unmarried woman. He agreed, so long as she agreed not to take anything of his while she stayed as his guest. She agreed. However, Solomon tricked her by ordering an extremely spicy meal to be served for dinner, and that a glass of water be placed near her bed as she slept. In the middle of the night she took the glass of water, and Solomon declared that she had broken her end of the agreement, and as such, he could break his end as well. They slept together, and after returning to her homeland, the Queen discovered she was pregnant. She gave birth to Solomon’s son, and named him Menelik. As he aged, Menelik expressed that he wished to see his father. He traveled to Israel to visit King Solomon, supposedly returning with the Ark of the Covenant, and the sacred container that contained the Ten Commandments. 

A figure rides upon horseback, thought to be the Queen of Sheba. Originally a wall painting in a church in Lalibela, Ethiopia, now in National Museum. Wikimedia, CC

With its many variations, the tales of the Queen of Sheba are frequently told to this day. In Ethiopia, it is believed that the son of the Queen of Sheba and Solomon, is from whom Ethiopian dynasty claims descent to this day. The tales are often used in modern-day literature, theater, film, and music. In these stories, she takes on many appearances, representing the different ways she is viewed by different societies. While many legends have the same basis, and there are many components of the Queen of Sheba’s story that are agreed-upon, there has been no physical evidence of her identity uncovered to date. Both Ethiopia and Yemen claim to be the homeland of the Queen of Sheba, but there is no archaeological evidence to support either stance. For now, she remains a legendary figure in the Bible, Quran, Jewish Aggadah, and Kebra Nagast. Regardless of the different versions of the stories that are told, the Queen of Sheba remains a figure that captivates people of different backgrounds, and from all different religions. As long as her story remains intriguing it will be retold, with newly arising variations on the legendary themes, and will serve as both inspiration and entertainment for many years to come. 

Actress Betty Blythe as the queen in The Queen of Sheba (1921) Public Domain

Featured image: Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, painting by Giovanni Demin (1789-1859). Public Domain

Sources

• The Queen of Sheba – CBS. Available from: http://www.pbs.org/mythsandheroes/myths_four_sheba.html
• Queen of Sheba – Wikipedia. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_of_Sheba
• The Queen of Sheba – BBC. Available from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/cultures/sheba_01.shtml
• Who was the Queen of Sheba? – About Education. Available from: http://womenshistory.about.com/od/bible/a/Queen-Of-Sheba.htm

By M R Reese

Aboriginal languages could reveal scientific clues to Australia’s unique past

The loss of Australian aboriginal languages could obstruct access to unique scientific information regarding Australia’s ancient geological history, according to a story reported this week by BBC News.

Ancient Australian aboriginal legends passed down over millennia appear to verify recent scientific discoveries regarding Australia’s ancient past. For example, cave art suggests an ancient knowledge of the heavens including beliefs in visits by ancient astronauts and a previously untapped record of natural history among the stars.

Investigation of such a resource could reveal memories of ancient meteor strikes from thousands of years ago according to research by the University of New South Wales (UNSW).

Intriguing Aboriginal rock art depicting Wandjinas, the supreme spirit beings and creators of the land and people

Dr Duane Hamacher of the UNSW Indigenous Astronomy Group has been able to match Aboriginal stories to impact craters dating from 4,700 years ago. One such location, at Henbury in Australia’s Northern Territory, is reflected in local oral traditions that have been passed down across the generations.

Henbury Meteorites Conservation Reserve, located 145 kilometers south west of Alice Springs, is estimated to have hit the earth’s surface 4,700 years ago, it contains 12 craters in total. 2006, Photo by W & S Roddom. (Wikimedia Commons)

Indigenous Aboriginal history is believed to span a period of between 40,000 to 45,000 years with some estimates indicating an Aboriginal presence in Australia some 80,000 years before the arrival of the first Europeans. The number of indigenous Aboriginal groups could amount to several hundred, many of which date to well before the colonization of Australia by the British in 1788. The largest of the groups in existence today is the Pitjantjatjara people who live around Uluru (Ayers Rock) and extend into the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara in South Australia.

It is thought that at the time of the first European settlement in Australia, some 250 distinct languages were spoken among Aboriginal peoples. Given that many of these languages would also have had their own dialects, the number of potential linguistic forms could extend to several hundred, according to authors Michael Walsh and Colin Yallop.   

Map of Australia showing the distribution of different Aboriginal languages (David R Horton, creator, Credit: Aboriginal Studies Press)

Researchers have fortunately been able to revive one of these ancient languages, previously suppressed by European colonization. The Kauna language was once spoken by Aboriginal peoples around the present city of Adelaide but it began to disappear from South Australia from the early 1860’s.

According to the stories of the Luritja people, a fire-devil arrived on the Earth seeking vengeance for the breaking of sacred laws. The story was handed down across more than 200 generations before the site of this event was finally identified in 1931.

The Henbury Meteorite Conservation Reserve was previously regarded as a taboo ‘no-go’ area by the Luritja. Scientists have now been able to establish that the ‘fire devil’ was actually an ancient meteorite that blasted several impact craters into the red-colored sand with an atomic level of power. 

Meteoric iron, found in Henbury, Australia, 1931 - Higgins Armory Museum, 2011. Photo by Daderot (Wikimedia Commons)

“Aboriginal oral traditions contain detailed knowledge about the natural world” said Dr Hamacher, who leads a group of nine researchers from UNSW’s Nura Gili Indigenous programs unit. “By merging scientific data with descriptions in oral tradition we can show that many of the stories are accounts of real-life events. So Aboriginal stories could lead us to places where natural disasters occurred.”

The dozen or so craters created by the meteorite and its fragments have diameters of up to 180 meters across. When scientists first entered the area in 1931, the Aboriginal guide they had brought with them refused to go any further. Luritja elders later told a local resident that the ‘fire devil’ will burn and eat anyone who breaks the sacred law.

Aboriginal peoples hold other stories of ancient natural disasters that have now been shown to be authentic by modern investigation. The Gunditjmara people for instance, tell of a giant wave that swept inland and killed everyone who hadn’t gone up to the mountains.

When Dr Hamacher travelled to Victoria with tsunami expert James Goff, also of UNSW, he found a layer of sediment 2 mm deep at a number of different locations between 500 meters and 1 kilometer inland thereby indicating that an ancient tsunami had swept over the area hundreds, perhaps thousands, of years ago.

These and other indigenous stories could be of great benefit to researchers investigating Australia’s history and geology. They also reveal an understanding of the universe among ancient societies, the existence of which wasn’t widely accepted before.

If Aboriginal languages and dialects, that are currently at risk, can be protected and revived, who knows what else they may have to offer?

Featured Image: Uluru, also referred to as Ayers Rock, is sacred to the Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara, the Aboriginal people of the area. It has many springs, waterholes, rock caves and ancient paintings. Uluru is listed as a World Heritage Site. (Wikimedia Commons)

By Robin Whitlock

20 New Lines from The Epic of Gilgamesh Discovered in Iraq, Adding New Details to the Story

The Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the oldest narratives in the world, got a surprise update last month when the Sulaymaniyah Museum in the Kurdistan region of Iraq announced that it had discovered 20 new lines of the Babylonian-Era poem of gods, mortals, and monsters. Since the poem has existed in fragments since the 18th century BC, there has always been the possibility that more would turn up. And yet the version we’re familiar with — the one discovered in 1853 in Nineveh — hasn’t changed very much over recent decades. The text remained fairly fixed — that is, until the fall of Baghdad in 2003 and the intense looting that followed yielded something new.

Since that time, the History Blog notes:

the [Sulaymaniyah] museum has a matter of policy paid smugglers to keep artifacts from leaving the country, no questions asked. The tablet was acquired by the museum in late 2011 as part of a collection of 80-90 tablets sold by an unnamed shady character. Professor Farouk Al-Rawi examined the collection while the seller haggled with museum official Abdullah Hashim. When Al-Rawi saw this tablet, he told Hashim to pay whatever the seller wanted: $800.

That’s a pretty good deal for these extra lines that not only add to the poem’s length, but have now cleared up some of the mysteries in the other chapters. These lines come from Chapter Five of the epic and cast the main characters in a new light. Gilgamesh and his companion Enkidu are shown to feel guilt over killing Humbaba, the guardian of the cedar forest, who is now seen as less a monster and more a king. Just like a good director’s cut, these extra scenes clear up some muddy character motivation, and add an environmental moral to the tale.

The History Blog article has an in depth description of the translation, with links to a scholarly paper on this very important find, and prompts the question, how much more is there to be discovered?

In the video above, Hazha Jalal, manager of the tablet’s section of the Sulaymaniyah Museum talks (in Kurdish) about the new discovery, saying (in translation): “The tablet dates back to the Neo-Bablyonian period, 2000-1500 BCE. It is a part of tablet V of the epic. It was acquired by the Museum in the year 2011 and [then] Dr. Farouk Al-Raw transliterated it. It was written as a poem and many new things this version has added, for example Gilgamesh and his friend met a monkey. We are honored to house this tablet and anyone can visit the Museum during its opening hours from 8:30 morning to noon. The entry is free for you and your guests. Thank you.”

In the meantime, if you’ve got a few minutes to spare, you can click here to Hear The Epic of Gilgamesh Read in the Original Akkadian and Enjoy the Sounds of Mesopotamia.

You can also find the epic in our twin collections, 700 Free Audio Books: Download Great Books for Free and 800 Free eBooks for iPad, Kindle & Other Devices.

via The History Blog


Ted Mills is a freelance writer on the arts who currently hosts the FunkZone Podcast. You can also follow him on Twitter at @tedmills, read his other arts writing at tedmills.com and/or watch his films here.

The Ballad of Hua Mulan: The Legendary Warrior Woman Who Brought Hope to China

Hua Mulan is one of the most legendary women of ancient China. Her story was originally described in a poem known as the Ballad of Mulan.

There is no archaeological proof that she was a real person, but tales of her heroic actions are told in ancient text. Although her story was documented in literature only, it’s also taught in today's Chinese schools.

In Chinese “Huā” means “flower” and “Mùlán” means magnolia. The magnolia flower is one of the symbols of China since ancient times. However, there is different information about Mulan’s possible roots, and her family name is uncertain.

In the text History of the Ming, her family name is Zhu, but in History of the Qing it is Wei. The only sure information is that her story is connected with the history of China in the 4th or 5th century AD.

The Origins of the Ballad

The original source of Mulan’s story came from one folk song in the North Wei Dynasty (386 AD - 557 AD) which was called The Ballad of Mulan.

The first known transcription of The Ballad of Mulan comes from the 6th century. Unfortunately, the original work no longer exists and the text of this poem comes from another work known as the Music Bureau Collection. This is an anthology of lyrics, songs, and poems compiled by Guo Maoqian during the 11th or 12th century. The author explicitly states that the Musical Records of Old and New was his source for the poem about Mulan. 

Mulan as depicted in the album ‘Gathering Gems of Beauty.’ (Public Domain)

The next appearance of Mulan’s tale came in the late Ming Dynasty. In 1593, the playwright Xu Wei dramatized the legend as The Female Mulan or The Heroine Mulan Goes to War in Her Father's Place.

It was a play in two acts. The last of the most important versions of the Ballad was incorporated into the Sui-Tang Romance, a historical novel written by Chu Renhuo in the 17th century. Thus, the folk tale about the warrior woman Hua Mulan stayed alive in people’s memories.

The Story of the Bravest Heroine of Chinese Poetry

The oldest known Ballad of Mulan consists of 31 couplets and is composed of mostly five-character phrases. The legend of Mulan has been written with many variations, but the plot is always the same:

Mulan was washing clothes when she heard that the army was recruiting new soldiers. To save her old and ailing father, Huan Hu, she decided to be recruited as his “son.” She knew that her father was too old and too ill to survive the war, so she decided to disguise herself as a man to go in his place. 

Hua Mulan goes to war. (Kung Fu Tea)

The tale continues with Mulan leaving for the battlefield carrying the sword inherited from the ancestors of the family. She fought for ten or twelve years and gained high merit, but refused any reward and retired to her hometown instead. During the war, she met an officer, who is normally named Jin Yong, with whom she fell in love.

Hua Mulan is arguably China's most famous female warrior. (closetprofessor)

Legends say that after 10 years on the battlefield Mulan was promoted to general. When Jin Yong learned that Mulan was a woman, he became more attached to her. In many versions of the story both Mulan and Jin Yong dream about getting married to each other. In time, other soldiers also started to find out that Mulan was a woman.

One day, before a very difficult battle, Mulan decided to go onto the battlefield in women’s clothing so her soldiers would realize her true identity. The reaction of the soldiers was one full of respect and admiration. They were overwhelmed by her bravery, grace, and wisdom. Thus, she inspired her army to win a battle once more. 

Mulan in battle. (Disneyfied or Disney tried?)

After another heroic triumph, the emperor wanted to reward Mulan. He was surprised that the bravest of his soldiers was a female. However, Mulan asked for nothing but a horse to ride home.

Many variations of the story say that when Mulan returned home she discovered that her father passed away. In these accounts, she doesn't feel like a hero, but instead like she lost the love of her life. She is also depicted in these folk tales as haunted by her experiences on the battlefield. Feeling lonely and misunderstood, the legend says that she decided to commit suicide. 

Hua Mulan. (Lock, Stock, and History)

The Real Mulan

Traditionally, Mulan’s life is placed in the time of the Northern Wei, however, many details of her story were added during the reign of the Tang dynasty around 620 AD.

In 621, the founder of the Tang dynasty was victorious over Wang Shichong and Dou Jiande, and another story about a warrior woman appeared at this time. Legends about both of these women were eventually connected into one story. 

Statue of Mulan being welcomed home, in the city of Xinxiang, China. (Public Domain)

The history of Mulan came about because in the 4th and 5th century China was suffering under the invasion of a nomadic ethnic group. The central government was completely destroyed by the “barbarian” group. The war was terrible and warriors needed a source of hope. The wars took more than three centuries and affected many parts of the Chinese Empire. Therefore, a woman solider (in the form of Mulan or others) was a phenomenon which inspired soldiers to fight.

Mulan in the Modern World

The legend of Hua Mulan comes back to life every time that China needs hope and inspiration. The character of Mulan has remained a very popular motif in art and literature. She appears as a heroine of more than 10 movies and theater plays. She is also a popular heroine of modern novels and researched books. Her monuments are located in many places around the world. Even a crater on Venus is named after her. Hua Mulan is a symbol of bravery and honor. Chinese people believe that she was a real person… and as long as she inspires them, it may not matter to them whether that is the truth.

A modern artistic representation of Mulan. (CC BY NC ND 3.0)

Featured image: The Story of Mulan. Source: Chinese Garden 101

By: Natalia Klimczak

References

• S. Kwa, W.L. Idema, Mulan: Five Versions of a Classic Chinese Legend with Related Texts, 2010
• M. H. Kingston, The Woman Warrior, 1975
• W. Jiang, Ch. Jiang,The Legend of Mu Lan: A Heroine of Ancient China,1992

Living in a Man's World: The Untimely & Brutal Death of Hypatia

The 4th century saw the formal and official transition of the Roman Empire from a wholly pagan state to a shared pagan and Christian entity. In many places, however, Christianity was starting to come out ahead—particularly in the eastern Roman Empire. Alexandria, Egypt was at the center of this struggle. It was a place where there was an amalgamation of pagans, Jews, and Christians sharing one space. Into this religious conflict walked Hypatia, a female scholar and the head of the Platonic school in Alexandria, who met an untimely death in the most brutal and unjust of circumstances.

Hypatia's life is most commonly seen through the lives of the two men in charge of Alexandria during her life: pagan governor Orestes and Bishop Cyril. It was in their life stories that Hypatia was written about, and it is only later literature that attempted to piece together her story outside of the politics of these two men.

The evidence of her beginnings stem from two ancient sources: Socrates of Scholasticus, writing only a few years after she died, and John of Nikiu, writing a few hundred years later. Though these men write of Hypatia in relation to Orestes and Cyril, they provide the two most widely circulated theories of who she was during her lifetime, and thus serve as two of the best references. 

Born around 350 CE, Hypatia was the daughter of a mathematician. She took an interest in science and math as well, eventually becoming the leading teacher of a Platonic school in Egypt, tutoring students in both astronomy and the philosophy of Plato and Plotis.

It was because of her religious beliefs and the subjects she taught that she was later targeted by the Christians of Alexandria—a woman with such knowledge and intellectual skill was considered dangerous in this period. But her death was not solely because of her teachings.

The current political struggle between the head of the church of Alexandria (Cyril) and the head of the government (Orestes) needed a scapegoat; since Hypatia was already making waves in society, she was the easiest and best target.

Hypatia teaching a class (Image source)

The conflict between Orestes and Cyril was a religious one. Orestes remained a pagan follower with what seemed to be a close, protective relationship with the Jewish community in the city, while Cyril, on the other hand, was a wholly Christian man.

As the story goes, the two men were already feuding because of Cyril's attempt to push ecclesiastical reforms throughout Alexandria. Their feud came to a head, however, when Orestes issued an edict dictating the rules of the Jewish dancing exhibitions, a particularly sore subject between the two men. A Christian under Cyril, Heirax, applauded the edict and was then accused by the Jews of having been sent to the hearing to anger and provoke them. To appease his subjects, Orestes had Heirax openly tortured and killed. But the Jews were indeed upset, and unfortunately for Orestes, took matters into their own hands.

In anger, the Jews of the city fooled the Christians into believing their church was ablaze in the middle of the night. According to both Socrates and John, when the Christians fled to the streets to save their beloved sanctuary, they were slaughtered.

The result: the Jews were stripped of their worldly goods and banished by Cyril, and Orestes was attacked—supposedly by five hundred monks. It was only after one of these monks, Ammonius, was declared a martyr upon his death that the Christians themselves realized the terrible irony of his martyrdom title. It was at this moment that Hypatia's life was stolen and rewritten to play the part of scapegoat.

According to John of Nikiu, Hypatia was not merely a philosopher and scholar. She was a woman of magical wiles who practiced ‘Satanic charms’ and had enchanted the governor Orestes. It seemed that Orestes was known to bring Hypatia into his confidence often, evidenced by numerous ancient and medieval scholars, and because of this the Christians and John of Nikiu seemed to believe that she was behind all the actions and decisions of Orestes. John of Nikiu claims, in a sense, that she charmed Orestes to do her bidding.

Illustration from an 1899 edition of Charles Kingsley's 1853 novel Hypatia. Picture shows Hypatia performing a pagan ritual (Wikimedia).

Both Socrates Scholasticus and John of Nikiu—and nearly every other text that describes Hypatia's life—tell the same story of her end, of the actions the Christians took to silence her "power" over Orestes.

Hypatia was hunted down and kidnapped by a magistrate called Peter and his fellow Christians and taken to the church at Caesareum. Brutally, she was stripped of her clothes and beaten with tiles or oyster shells, supposedly skinned alive with those very same oyster shells. Then, Hypatia was either ripped to shreds or dragged through the streets until she died.

Regardless of the specifics, both men describe a murder so brutal, so callous, Hypatia was definitely treated more like an animal up for the slaughter than a human being accused of wronging the government. Whether or not she had worked closely with Orestes, the way of her death was horrific and undeserved. 

"Death of the philosopher Hypatia, in Alexandria" from the book Vies des savants illustres, depuis l'antiquité jusqu'au dix-neuvième siècle, by Louis Figuier, first published 1866. [Note: this picture has a racist overtone and should not be seen as an accurate representation of Hypatia’s killers. However, it does reflect the historical descriptions of Hypatia being dragged through the street]. (Wikimedia)

Despite this, the majority of Hypatia's life has been written about in relation to how her death impacted on the city of Alexandria in the 4th century, not about the injustice of her murder.

While she was alive, she was known as a great female philosophical leader. But in history, she is best remembered for the role she was accused of playing in the political struggle between two overconfident, religiously warring men.

With her death, many scholars believe the cultural scales in Alexandria tipped: John of Nikiu proclaimed that the final threads of pagan idolatry ended with her, while modern scholars believe that classical and Alexandrian culture completely deteriorated. Regardless of whether this belief is true, whether Hypatia can truly be identified as the end of the height of Alexandrian society, her death did create a political and religious shift throughout Alexandria and the eastern Roman Empire.

Featured image: ‘Hypatia’ by Alfred Seifert, 1901 (Wikimedia).

Sources:

• Dzielska, Maria. Hypatia of Alexandria. trans. F. Lyra. (Harvard University Press: Connecticut, 1996.)
• Charles, R. H., The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text (New Jersey: Evolution Publishing, 2007.)
• FitzGerald, A., The Letters of Synesius of Cyrene (London: Oxford University Press, 1926.)
• Schaefer, Francis. "St. Cyril of Alexandria and the Murder of Hypatia", The Catholic University Bulletin 8, 1992. pp. 441–453.
• Scholasticus, Socrates. Historia Ecclesiastica (NuVision Publications, LLC: South Dakota, 2013.)
• Whitfield, Bryan J. "The Beauty of Reasoning: A Reexamination of Hypatia and Alexandria". The Mathematics Educator, 1995. pp. 14–21. Accessed November 2, 2014.
• Zielinski, Sarah. "Hypatia, Ancient Alexandria’s Great Female Scholar." Smithsonian Magazine. March 14, 2010. Accessed November 2, 2014. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/womens-history/hypatia-ancient-alexandrias-great-female-scholar-10942888/?page=1.

By Ryan Stone

Tomyris, The Female Warrior and Ruler Who May Have Killed Cyrus the Great

Tomyris was an ancient ruler of the Massagetae, a Scythian pastoral-nomadic confederation in Central Asia. She became famous for her bravery and especially for the greatest battle she ever fought – the day when Cyrus the Great died.

Tomyris’ kingdom was located in the area to the east of the Caspian Sea, in parts of modern-day Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, western Uzbekistan, and southern Kazakhstan.

Most people remember Tomyris for her role in the defense against an attack by Cyrus the Great of the Achamenind Empire (600/ 576 – 530 BC). In 530 BC, she may have killed one of the most famous Persians in history.

Herodotus wrote that there were a few different stories about the death of Cyrus, and includes Tomyris as one of the possible causes for his demise. The story of Tomyris is also included in books by Strabo, Polyaenus, Cassiodorus, and Jordanes. However, the earliest writing about her comes from Herodotus, who lived from 484 to 425 BC.

The name of Tomyris and her son Spargapises, have roots in Persia, but the Hellenic forms of their names are most commonly used. Spargapises was the head of his mother’s army. During the battles mother and son fought together. 

The Massagetae Kingdom

There is little information about the cultural roots of Tomyris’ kingdom, but according to Ammianus Marcelinus, the origins of the Massagetae may have been the kingdom Alans (Indo-Iranians). They migrated westwards and became the dominant power in many parts of Asia and influenced Europe.

Procopius of Caesarea (500 – 560 AD) wrote in his History of the Wars Book III that the Massagetae were known in his times as the Huns. Evagrius Scholasticus (6th century AD) mentioned that the people known as the Huns, who were formerly known by the name of the Massagetae, appeared in Thrace.

Asia in 323 BC, showing the Massagetae located in modern-day Central Asia. (Public Domain)

Herodotus was the only one who left a clear description of the Massagetae culture:

“In their dress and mode of living the Massagetae resemble the Scythians.

They fight both on horseback and on foot, neither method is strange to them: they use bows and lances, but their favorite weapon is the battle-axe. Their arms are all either of gold or brass. For their spear-points, and arrow-heads, and for their battle-axes, they make use of brass; for head-gear, belts, and girdles, of gold. So too with the caparison of their horses, they give them breastplates of brass, but employ gold about the reins, the bit, and the cheek-plates. They use neither iron nor silver, having none in their country; but they have brass and gold in abundance.”  

The Most Important Battle in the History of the Massagetae

During the first attacks on the Massagetae, Cyrus was the winner. The Persians didn't see the small kingdom in the heart of Central Asia as dangerous enemy. They had already faced so many bigger and more famous armies, that the soldiers led by a woman and her son didn't seem to be a difficult rival.

According to ancient descriptions, the Persians won the first battle due to a very clever trap. They decided to leave the camp, which contained a rich supply of wine, and allowed the Massagetae to enter it.

The Scythians were not used to drinking wine so they got drunk immediately. The Persians then returned to the camp and attacked their enemies. Among the captured soldiers of Tomyris’ army was her son, who asked Cyrus for permission to commit suicide. 

A painting of Cyrus the Great in battle from the Palace of Versailles. (public domain)

Tomyris was a fearless leader, but the pain of a mother who lost her son made her stronger than ever before. When she sent a message to Cyrus, he ignored her. She then challenged him to a second battle and the Persians believed that the second one would be already won before it even started.

However, this time Tomyris was well prepared and her army blocked the quick avenue of escape for Cyrus and his army. She led her army to victory over the Persians and saved her land, but also avenged the death of Spargapises. 

Tomyris as imagined by Castagno, 15th century. (Public Domain)

The Legacy of a Warrior

“The greater part of the army of the Persians was destroyed and Cyrus himself fell, after reigning nine and twenty years. Search was made among the slain by order of the queen for the body of Cyrus, and when it was found she took a skin, and, filling it full of human blood, she dipped the head of Cyrus in the gore, saying, as she thus insulted the corpse, “I live and have conquered you in fight, and yet by you am I ruined, for you took my son with guile; but thus I make good my threat, and give you your fill of blood.” Of the many different accounts which are given of the death of Cyrus, this which I have followed appears to me most worthy of credit.” (Herodotus, I.214)

Cyrus The Great won many battles. He was able to defeat many of the most powerful men of his times. However, many scholars say that his life ended under the knife of Tomyris. 

Mattia Preti, Tomyris Receiving the Head of Cyrus, 1670-72. (Public Domain)

The tomb of Tomyris has never been found. There are also no reasonable archaeological finds connected with her. Thus, she is known best from the written stories by ancient writers. From them it seems that her fame is to be immortal.

Nowadays, Tomyris is still an inspiration to many writers, painters, and composers. She is a heroine of the poems by Eustache Dechampes, Uzbek author Xurshid Davron, Halim Xudoberdiyeva etc. She is also an inspiration of fantasy visual art. As there is a lack of her real portraits, many artists around the world have created their own visions of her. Her name was even given to one of the minor planets, which is known as 590 Tomyris.

Featured image: "Tomyris Plunges the Head of the Dead Cyrus Into a Vessel of Blood" by Rubens (Public Domain)

By Natalia Klimczak

References:

• Gera, Deborah Levine, Warrior Women, 1997.

• Grousset, René. The Empire of the Steppes, 1989

• Bachrach, Bernard S., A History of the Alans in the West, from their first appearance in the sources of classical antiquity through the early middle ages, 1973